Книга: Singer Peter «Marx»

born July 6, 1946, Melbourne, Austl.

      Australian ethical and political philosopher, best known for his work in bioethics and his role as one of the intellectual founders of the modern animal rights movement.

      Singer's Jewish parents emigrated to Australia from Vienna in 1938 to escape Nazi persecution following the Anschluss. Three of Singer's grandparents were subsequently killed in the Holocaust. Growing up in Melbourne, Singer attended Scotch College and the University of Melbourne, where he earned a B.A. in philosophy and history (1967) and an M.A. in philosophy (1969). In 1969 he entered the University of Oxford, receiving a B.Phil. degree in 1971 and serving as Radcliffe Lecturer in Philosophy at University College from 1971 to 1973. At Oxford his association with a vegetarian student group and his reflection on the morality of his own meat eating led him to adopt vegetarianism. While at Oxford and during a visiting professorship at New York University in 1973–74, he wrote what would become his best-known and most influential work, Animal Liberation: A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals (1975). Returning to Australia, he lectured at La Trobe University (1975–76) and was appointed professor of philosophy at Monash University (1977); he became director of Monash's Centre for Human Bioethics in 1983 and codirector of its Institute for Ethics and Public Policy in 1992. In 1999 he was appointed Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics in the University Center for Human Values at Princeton University.

      In keeping with ethical principles that guided his thinking and writing from the 1970s, Singer devoted much of his time and effort (and a considerable portion of his income) to social and political causes, most notably animal rights but also famine and poverty relief, environmentalism, and abortion rights. By the 1990s his intellectual leadership of the increasingly successful animal rights movement and his controversial stands on some bioethical issues had made him one of the world's most widely recognized public intellectuals.

      Singer's work in applied ethics and his activism in politics were informed by his Utilitarianism, the tradition in ethical philosophy that holds that actions are right or wrong depending on the extent to which they promote happiness or prevent pain. In an influential early article, Famine, Affluence, and Morality (1972), occasioned by the catastrophic cyclone in Bangladesh in 1971, he rejected the common prephilosophical assumption that physical proximity is a relevant factor in determining one's moral obligations to others. Regarding the question of whether people in affluent countries have a greater obligation to help those near them than to contribute to famine relief in Bangladesh, he wrote: “It makes no moral difference whether the person I can help is a neighbor's child ten yards from me or a Bengali whose name I shall never know, ten thousand miles away.” The only important question, according to Singer, is whether the evil that may be prevented by one's contribution outweighs whatever inconvenience or hardship may be involved in contributing—and for the large majority of people in affluent societies, the answer is clearly yes. An interesting philosophical implication of Singer's larger argument was that the traditional distinction between duty and charity—between actions that one is obliged to do and actions that it would be good to do even though one is not obliged to do them—was seriously weakened, if not completely undermined. On the utilitarian principles Singer plausibly applied to this case, any action becomes a duty if it will prevent more pain than it causes or cause more happiness than it prevents.

      The publication of Animal Liberation in 1975 greatly contributed to the growth of the animal rights movement by calling attention to the routine torture and abuse of countless animals in factory farms and in scientific research; at the same time, it generated significant new interest among ethical philosophers in the moral status of nonhuman animals. The most-important philosophical contribution of the book was Singer's penetrating examination of the concept of “speciesism” (which he did not invent): the rationally unsupported idea that the species of a being should be relevant to its moral status, just as race and sex should be relevant to the moral status of a human being. To the contrary, argued Singer, all beings with interests (all beings who are capable of enjoyment or suffering, broadly construed) deserve to have those interests taken into account in one's moral decision making. Furthermore, the kind of consideration a being deserves should depend on the nature of the interests it has (what kinds of enjoyment or suffering it is capable of), not on the species it happens to belong to. To think otherwise is to endorse a prejudice exactly analogous to racism or sexism. Speciesism was extensively explored by ethical philosophers and eventually became a familiar theme in popular discussions of animal rights in a variety of forums.

      In numerous books and articles published in the 1980s and after, Singer continued to develop his positions on animal rights and other topics in applied ethical and political philosophy—including stem cell research, infanticide, euthanasia, global environmental concerns, and the political implications of Darwinism (see also human evolution)—placing them within the context of theoretical developments in utilitarianism. Even as his philosophical defense of animal rights gained currency in academia and beyond, however, his stances on other issues engendered new controversies, some of which pitted him against people who had supported his work on behalf of animal rights or had been sympathetic to his general philosophical approach. In 1999, his appointment to Princeton University was protested by activists on behalf of the disabled, who objected to his view that the active euthanasia of severely disabled human infants is morally permissible in some circumstances.

      In addition to Animal Liberation, Singer's many books include Practical Ethics (1979), Rethinking Life and Death: The Collapse of Our Traditional Ethics (1994), A Darwinian Left (1999), and One World: Ethics and Globalization (2002). Singer is also the author of Encyclopædia Britannica's article on ethics.