Книга: Zola Emile «The Kill»

French writer and critic who was a leading proponent of naturalism in fiction. His works include Les Rougon-Macquart (1871-1893), a series of 20 novels, and “J'Accuse” (1898), a letter in defense of Alfred Dreyfus.

born , April 2, 1840, Paris, France

died Sept. 28, 1902, Paris

 French novelist, critic, and political activist who was the most prominent French novelist of the late 19th century. He was noted for his theories of naturalism, which underlie his monumental 20-novel series Les Rougon-Macquart, and for his intervention in the Dreyfus Affair through his famous open letter, “J'accuse.”

      Though born in Paris in 1840, Zola spent his youth in Aix-en-Provence in southern France, where his father, a civil engineer of Italian descent, was involved in the construction of a municipal water system. The senior Zola died in 1847, leaving Madame Zola and her young son in dire financial straits. In Aix, Zola was a schoolmate of the painter Paul Cézanne (Cézanne, Paul), who would later join him in Paris and introduce him to Édouard Manet (Manet, Édouard) and the Impressionist painters.

      Although Zola completed his schooling at the Lycée Saint-Louis in Paris, he twice failed the baccalauréat exam, which was a prerequisite to further studies, and in 1859 he was forced to seek gainful employment. Zola spent most of the next two years unemployed and living in abject poverty. He subsisted by pawning his few belongings and, according to legend, by eating sparrows trapped outside his attic window. Finally, in 1862 he was hired as a clerk at the publishing firm of L.-C.-F. Hachette, where he was later promoted to the advertising department. To supplement his income and make his mark in the world of letters, Zola began to write articles on subjects of current interest for various periodicals; he also continued to write fiction, a pastime he had enjoyed since boyhood. In 1865 Zola published his first novel, La Confession de Claude (Claude's Confession), a sordid, semiautobiographical tale that drew the attention of the public and the police and incurred the disapproval of Zola's employer. Having sufficiently established his reputation as a writer to support himself and his mother, albeit meagerly, as a freelance journalist, Zola left his job at Hachette to pursue his literary interests.

      In the following years Zola continued his career in journalism while publishing two novels: Thérèse Raquin (1867), a grisly tale of murder and its aftermath that is still widely read, and Madeleine Férat (1868), a rather unsuccessful attempt at applying the principles of heredity to the novel. It was this interest in science that led Zola, in the fall of 1868, to conceive the idea of a large-scale series of novels similar to Honoré de Balzac's La Comédie humaine (The Human Comedy), which had appeared earlier in the century. Zola's project, originally involving 10 novels, each featuring a different member of the same family, was gradually expanded to comprise the 20 volumes of the Rougon-Macquart series.

      La Fortune des Rougon (The Rougon Family Fortune), the first novel in the series, began to appear in serial form in 1870, was interrupted by the outbreak of the Franco-German War in July, and was eventually published in book form in October 1871. Zola went on to produce these 20 novels—most of which are of substantial length—at the rate of nearly one per year, completing the series in 1893.

      In the 1860s and '70s Zola also defended the art of Cézanne, Manet, and the Impressionists (Impressionism) Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir in newspaper articles. During this period he was a constant presence at weekly gatherings of the painters at various studios and cafés, where theories about the arts and their potential interrelationships were vociferously debated. Zola's friendship with Cézanne and the other artists was, however, irreparably damaged by the publication of his novel L'Oeuvre (1886; The Masterpiece), which depicts the life of an innovative painter who, unable to realize his creative potential, ends up hanging himself in front of his final painting. Cézanne, in particular, chose to see the novel as a thinly disguised commentary on his own temperament and talent.

      In 1870 Zola married Gabrielle-Alexandrine Meley, who had been his companion and lover for almost five years, and the young couple assumed the care of Zola's mother. In the early '70s Zola expanded his literary contacts, meeting frequently with Gustave Flaubert, Edmond Goncourt, Alphonse Daudet, and Ivan Turgenev, all successful novelists whose failures in the theatre led them to humorously refer to themselves as auteurs sifflés (“hissed authors”). Beginning in 1878 the Zola home in Médan, on the Seine River not far from Paris, served as a gathering spot for a group of the novelist's disciples, the best-known of whom were Guy de Maupassant and Joris-Karl Huysmans, and together they published a collection of short stories, Les Soirées de Médan (1880; Evenings at Médan).

      As the founder and most celebrated member of the naturalist (naturalism) movement, Zola published several treatises to explain his theories on art, including Le Roman expérimental (1880; The Experimental Novel) and Les Romanciers naturalistes (1881; The Naturalist Novelists). Naturalism involves the application to literature of two scientific principles: determinism, or the belief that character, temperament, and, ultimately, behaviour are determined by the forces of heredity, environment, and historical moment; and the experimental method, which entails the objective recording of precise data in controlled conditions.

      If Zola's penchant for polemics and publicity led him to exaggerate his naturalist principles in his early writings, in later years, it can be said, rather, that controversy sought out the reluctant novelist. His publication of a particularly grim and sordid portrait of peasant life in La Terre in 1887 led a group of five so-called disciples to repudiate Zola in a manifesto published in the important newspaper Le Figaro. His novel La Débâcle (1892), which was openly critical of the French army and government actions during the Franco-German War (1870–71), drew vitriolic criticism from French and Germans alike. Despite Zola's undisputed prominence, he was never elected to the French Academy, although he was nominated on no fewer than 19 occasions.

      Although Zola's marriage to Alexandrine endured until his death, the author had a fourteen-year affair with Jeanne Rozerot, one of his wife's housemaids, beginning in 1888. Jeanne bore him his only children—Denise and Jacques—who were “recognized” by Madame Zola after her husband's death.

      In 1898 Zola intervened in the Dreyfus (Dreyfus, Alfred) Affair—that of a Jewish French army officer whose wrongful conviction for treason in 1894 sparked a 12-year controversy that deeply divided French society. At an early stage in the proceedings Zola had decided rightly that Alfred Dreyfus was innocent. On Jan. 13, 1898, in the newspaper L'Aurore, Zola published a fierce denunciation of the French general staff in an open letter beginning with the words “J'accuse” (“I accuse”). He charged various high-ranking military officers and, indeed, the War Office itself of concealing the truth in the wrongful conviction of Dreyfus for espionage. Zola was prosecuted for libel and found guilty. In July 1899, when his appeal appeared certain to fail, he fled to England. He returned to France the following June when he learned that the Dreyfus case was to be reopened with a possible reversal of the original verdict. Zola's intervention in the controversy helped to undermine anti-Semitism and rabid militarism in France.

      Zola's final series of novels, Les Trois Villes (1894–98; The Three Cities) and Les Quatre Évangiles (1899–1903; The Four Gospels) are generally conceded to be far less forceful than his earlier work. However, the titles of the novels in the latter series reveal the values that underlay his entire life and work: Fécondité (1899; Fecundity), Travail (1901; Work), Vérité (1903; Truth), and Justice (which, ironically, remained incomplete).

      Zola died unexpectedly in September 1902, the victim of coal gas asphyxiation resulting from a blocked chimney flue. Officially, the event was determined to be a tragic accident, but there were—and still are—those who believe that fanatical anti-Dreyfusards arranged to have the chimney blocked.

      At the time of his death, Zola was recognized not only as one of the greatest novelists in Europe but also as a man of action—a defender of truth and justice, a champion of the poor and the persecuted. At his funeral he was eulogized by Anatole France as having been not just a great man, but “a moment in the human conscience,” and crowds of mourners, prominent and poor alike, lined the streets to salute the passing casket. In 1908 Zola's remains were transferred to the Panthéon and placed alongside those of Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Victor Hugo, other French authors whose works and deeds, like those of Zola, had changed the course of French history.

      Although he produced some 60 volumes of fiction, theory, and criticism, in addition to numerous pieces of journalism, during his 40-year career, Zola is best known for his 20-volume series Les Rougon-Macquart, which is “the natural and social history of a family under the Second Empire.” As the subtitle suggests, the naturalist goal of demonstrating the deterministic influence of heredity is fulfilled by tracing the lives of various members of the three branches of the Rougon-Macquart family. At the same time, the weight of historical moment is shown by limiting the action of the novels to one historical period, that of the Second Empire (1852–70), which was the reign of Napoleon III, the nephew and pale imitation of Napoleon Bonaparte. Finally, Zola examines the impact of environment by varying the social, economic, and professional milieu in which each novel takes place.

      La Curée (1872; The Kill), for example, explores the land speculation and financial dealings that accompanied the renovation of Paris during the Second Empire. Le Ventre de Paris (1873; The Belly of Paris) examines the structure of the Halles, the vast central market-place of Paris, and its influence on the lives of its workers. The 10 steel pavilions that make up the market are compared alternately to a machine, a palace, and an entire city, thereby situating the market within a broader social framework. Son Excellence Eugène Rougon (1876; His Excellency Eugène Rougon) traces the machinations and maneuverings of cabinet officials in Napoleon III's government.

      L'Assommoir (1877; “The Club”; Eng. trans. The Drunkard), which is among the most successful and enduringly popular of Zola's novels, shows the effects of alcoholism in a working-class neighbourhood by focusing on the rise and decline of a laundress, Gervaise Macquart. Zola's use of slang, not only by the characters but by the narrator, and his vivid paintings of crowds in motion lend authenticity and power to his portrait of the working class. Nana (1880) follows the life of Gervaise's daughter as her economic circumstances and hereditary penchants lead her to a career as an actress, then a courtesan, professions underscored by a theatrical metaphor that extends throughout the novel, revealing the ceremonial falseness of the Second Empire. Au Bonheur des Dames (1883; Ladies' Delight) depicts the mechanisms of a new economic entity, the department store, and its impact on smaller merchants. The sweeping descriptions of crowds and dry-goods displays justify Zola's characterization of the novel as “a poem of modern activity.”

      Germinal (1885), which is generally acknowledged to be Zola's masterpiece, depicts life in a mining community by highlighting relations between the bourgeoisie and the working class. At the same time, the novel weighs the events of a miners' strike and its aftermath in terms of those contemporary political movements (Marxism, anarchism, trade unionism) that purport to deal with the problems of the proletariat. Zola's comparison of the coal mine to a devouring monster and his use of animal and botanical imagery to characterize the workers create a novel of epic scope that replicates, in modern terms, ancient myths of damnation and resurrection. A quite different work, L'Oeuvre (1886), explores the milieu of the art world and the interrelationship of the arts by means of the friendship between an Impressionist painter, Claude Lantier, and a naturalist novelist, Pierre Sandoz. Zola's verbal style mirrors the visual techniques of Impressionism in word-pictures of Paris transformed by varying effects of colour, light, and atmosphere.

      In La Terre (1887; Earth) Zola breaks with the tradition of rustic, pastoral depictions of peasant life to show what he considered to be the sordid lust for land among the French peasantry. In La Bête humaine (1890; The Human Beast) he analyzes the hereditary urge to kill that haunts the Lantier branch of the family, set against the background of the French railway system, with its powerful machinery and rapid movement. La Débâcle (1892; The Debacle) traces both the defeat of the French army by the Germans at the Battle of Sedan in 1870 and the anarchist uprising of the Paris Commune. Zola superimposes the viewpoints of numerous characters to capture the vividness of individual vision while at the same time obtaining an overall strategic sense of the war. Finally, in Le Docteur Pascal (1893) he uses the main character, the doctor Pascal Rougon, armed with a genealogical tree of the Rougon-Macquart family published with the novel, to expound the theories of heredity underlying the entire series.

      The Rougon-Macquart series thus constitutes a family saga, not unlike those of today's television miniseries, while providing a valuable sociological document of the events, institutions, and ideas that marked the rise of modern industrialism and the cultural changes it entailed. However, if the novels continue to be widely read today, it is largely due to Zola's unique artistry, a poetry of machine and motion, vitalized by the individual viewpoint, yet structured by vast networks of imagery that capture the intense activity and alienation of modern industrial society. Zola's novels have had an immense impact on modern literature, from the existentialist novel and the “new novel” in France to the works of the “muckrakers” in the United States. In their striking combination of visuality and movement, Zola's novels can even be said to foreshadow the motion picture, for which they have proved admirably suited for adaptation, from the pioneering version of La Bête humaine by Jean Renoir in 1938 to the big-budget rendition of Germinal by Claude Berri in 1993. Above all, Zola's writings endure on account of his forthright portrayal of social injustice, his staunch defence of the downtrodden, and his unwavering belief in the betterment of the human condition through individual and collective action.

William J. Berg

Biographies in English include F.W.J. Hemmings, The Life and Times of Émile Zola (1977), an examination of Zola's life set in a cultural context with illustrations; Philip Walker, Zola (1985), a highly readable study; and Frederick Brown, Zola (1995).Critical studies of his works include David Baguley (ed.), Critical Essays on Émile Zola (1986), a collection of essays by numerous critics representing different periods and approaches; William J. Berg, The Visual Novel: Émile Zola and the Art of His Times (1992), a demonstration of the role of painting and visual effects in Zola's novels; William J. Berg and Laurey K. Martin, Émile Zola Revisited (1992), an introduction to Zola's works for the nonspecialist from thematic and stylistic viewpoints; F.W.J. Hemmings, Émile Zola, 2nd ed. (1966), a classic study, combining critical analyses with biographical details and cultural history; Bettina L. Knapp, Émile Zola (1980), a general study examining the role of myths in Zola's life and works from a Jungian perspective; J.G. Patterson, A Zola Dictionary (1912, reprinted 1973), a useful tool listing main characters and plot summaries for the Rougon-Macquart novels; Naomi Schor, Zola's Crowds (1978), a study of the relationship between individual protagonists and crowds in Zola's novels; Angus Wilson, Émile Zola: An Introductory Study of His Novels, 2nd ed. (1964), an analysis of Zola's works, suggesting psychological origins for various scenes and themes; and Brian Nelson (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Zola (2007), a collection of essays.William J. Berg Ed.